Dana, generosity or giving, is the first Mahayana Buddhist paramita. Generosity is where the journey to self-transcendence begins. In this first episode on Dana, I give an overview of the Buddha’s teachings on the virtue of giving. These teachings are from before Dana was defined as one of the paramis or paramitas – that is, perfections cultivated by someone on the bodhisattva path. In the next episode I discuss Dana as a perfection.
Quicklinks to Article Content:
The Importance of Generosity in Our Practice
The Buddha’s Teachings on Giving
Generosity as an Antidote to Stinginess
The Benefits and Merits of Giving
Motivation and Attitude When Giving
What You Give and to Whom
Giving is Not Enough
Dana, generosity or giving, is the first Mahayana Buddhist paramita. “Paramita” is usually translated as “perfection,” and literally means “that which has reached the other shore”[i] – this shore being the world of suffering and the other shore being the peace of Nirvana, or complete spiritual liberation.
In this first episode on Dana, I give an overview of the Buddha’s teachings on the virtue of giving. These teachings are from before Dana was defined as one of the paramis or paramitas – that is, perfections cultivated by someone on the bodhisattva path. In the next episode I will begin discussing Dana as a perfection, starting with the ultimate generosity portrayed in ancient stories about the Buddha’s previous lives. Such stories inspired people to follow the bodhisattva path in both Theravadin and Mahayana Buddhism, so I will spend some time on the Theravadin paramis. Then I’ll move on to the Mahayana approach to Dana, which focuses on the emptiness of the three spheres of giver, receiver, and gift and continues to present an ideal of complete selflessness.
The Importance of Generosity in Our Practice
The second century Indian Buddhist monk and Mahayana philosopher Arya Nagarjuna wrote, “Dāna is the primary condition for the realization of nirvāṇa.”[ii]
It makes sense that generosity would be the beginning of spiritual practice. It’s the nature of human beings – or really, of any sentient creature – to be focused on our own welfare, or on the welfare of our close relatives and offspring. Central to our concern about our welfare is ensuring we have the resources we need to survive and prosper. Such resources include material things like food, water, shelter, and clothing, but also extend to things like physical health; a home that is large, safe, and comfortable enough for our family to live in without stress; a stable and dignified livelihood; enough wealth to ensure proper education and social status for our children, and disposable income and leisure time for enjoying life.
Generosity is where the journey to self-transcendence begins. This is why sharing is one of the very first virtues we teach to children. At first, they simply comply to please us, not being able to imagine things from another person’s point of view. Eventually, you can see a child’s sense of empathy develop, and the delight they experience when giving something they want to someone else and watching that person’s joy. Of course, the child’s own desires will constantly compete against their newly developing sense of generosity, but it’s a beginning.
Similarly, Buddhist practice begins with an aspiration to become more generous. This is why Dana is the first of the ten Theravadin paramis and the six Mahayana paramitas.
The Buddha’s Teachings on Giving
Given the way Dana features in the lists of bodhisattva virtues, it may come as a surprise that – at least according to the Pali Canon and other ancient Buddhist canons – Dana isn’t included in any of the central teachings of the Buddha. This includes the Eightfold Path, Four Brahmaviharas, or Seven Factors of Awakening. The Buddha certainly praised generosity, but it was seen as a basic prerequisite to practicing the Dharma. As Bhikku Bodhi puts it in his essay, “Dana: The Practice of Giving:”
Strictly speaking, giving does not appear in its own right among the factors of the Noble Eightfold Path, nor does it enter among the other requisites of enlightenment (bodhipakkhiya dhamma). Most probably it has been excluded from these groupings because the practice of giving does not by its own nature conduce directly and immediately to the arising of insight and the realization of the Four Noble Truths. Giving functions in the Buddhist discipline in a different capacity. It does not come at the apex of the path, as a factor constituent of the process of awakening, but rather it serves as a basis and preparation which underlies and quietly supports the entire endeavor to free the mind from the defilements.[iii]
Generosity as an Antidote to Stinginess
The willingness to be generous can be seen as the antidote to stinginess, or obsession about our own welfare. Therefore, it is a basic prerequisite for practice. To his monks, who had already renounced the household life and all its comforts, the Buddha said:
Without abandoning these five qualities, one is incapable of entering & remaining in the first jhana. Which five? Stinginess as to one’s monastery [lodgings], stinginess as to one’s family [of supporters], stinginess as to one’s gains, stinginess as to one’s status, and stinginess as to the Dhamma. Without abandoning these five qualities, one is incapable of entering & remaining in the first jhana.
With the abandoning of these five qualities, one is capable of entering & remaining in the first jhana…[iv]
Jhana is the first level of meditative concentration, so being so wrapped up in self-concern that you’re inclined to stinginess means you can’t even begin Buddhist practice. We know this, of course, from our direct experience. When we’re preoccupied with potential threats to the abundance of what we want to retain – including wealth, material objects, time, energy, privacy, or status – we’re unlikely to be able to settle deeply in meditation. We’re unlikely to embrace the core Dharma teachings of impermanence, not-self, and the renunciation of that which causes suffering. By practicing giving, we challenge our attachments and have a chance to experience the relief of stress that comes from letting go of self-concern. In the Dhammapada the Buddha said:
No misers go
to the world of the devas [heavenly beings].
Those who don’t praise giving
are fools.
The enlightened
express their approval for giving
and so find ease
in the world beyond.[v]
The Buddha gives advice specifically to lay (householder) practitioners, emphasizing the importance of a “balanced livelihood,” saying, “a householder knowing his income and expenses leads a balanced life, neither extravagant nor miserly, knowing that thus his income will stand in excess of his expenses, but not his expenses in excess of his income.”[vi] At the same time, the Buddha said there were four conditions which lead to the happiness and spiritual development of the householder in this life and the next: The accomplishment of faith, the accomplishment of virtue (moral conduct), the accomplishment of charity, and the accomplishment of wisdom. Regarding the accomplishment of charity, the Buddha says:
What is the accomplishment of charity?
Herein a householder dwells at home with heart free from the stain of avarice, devoted to charity, open-handed, delighting in generosity, attending to the needy, delighting in the distribution of alms. This is called the accomplishment of charity.[vii]
As we will see, Buddhist descriptions of ideal generosity can be very lofty. It might be useful to think of there being a spectrum between complete stinginess and complete open-handedness. There are usually limits on our giving if we’re going to also look after ourselves, our families, and our responsibilities. We’ll always be navigating the best way to respond to the needs we encounter, trying to avoid the extreme of hoarding and paranoia as well as the extreme of carelessly expending our resources to the point of poverty and burnout.
The Benefits and Merits of Giving
The Buddhist teachings describe many benefits that can be experienced by practicing giving. In general, they mention many positive results you are likely to see in terms of your wealth, emotional well-being, and social relationships. It’s also said that if you practice giving in this life, you will experience benefits in your next life. The religious cosmology at the time of the Buddha included a belief in rebirth, so many people were concerned about the conditions they would encounter in future lives as well as in this one.
According to the Angutarra Nikaya, there are five benefits of giving:
A giver, a donor is dear and beloved by many people. Good people associate with them. They get a good reputation. They don’t neglect a layperson’s duties. When their body breaks up, after death, they’re reborn in a good place, a heavenly realm. These are the five benefits of giving.[viii]
In addition, this same sutta says that practicing generosity makes you a good candidate for Dharma teaching:
Giving, one is loved,
and follows the way of the good.
The good, disciplined spiritual practitioners
associate with you.They teach you the Dhamma
that dispels all suffering.
Understanding this teaching,
you’re extinguished without defilements.[ix]
Notably, a person is said to benefit from their acts of giving even if their behavior is otherwise immoral and harmful. In another Angutarra Nikaya sutta, it discussed the cast of someone who breaks all the moral precepts (taking life, stealing, engaging in sexual misconduct, lying, engaging in divisive and harsh speech and idle chatter, being covetous, bearing ill will, and harboring wrong views). It says that if the person nonetheless “gives food, drink, cloth, vehicles, garlands, scents, creams, bed, lodging, & lamps to contemplatives & brahmans,” the repercussions of the person’s harmful actions in terms of their rebirth in hell or the other lower realms will be mitigated. Because of their past giving, they have a chance of being reborn in somewhat more fortunate circumstances. The sutta says these immoral but generous people will be reborn among animals, but they will at least be provided with food, drink, and various comforts.[x]
If you don’t believe in rebirth, you can take this teaching to mean that even when you inevitably face the consequences of your harmful actions, your pain and difficulty will be mitigated to whatever extent you also have performed generous actions. This isn’t a truth based on a belief in some kind of karmic justice machine that gives out rewards and punishments. We can appreciate this from our own direct experience; we may make mistakes and even break precepts, but whatever repercussions we face will be much less painful if we have cultivated a generous heart instead of a self-centered, stingy one.
Clearly, although Dana doesn’t feature in and of itself in classic Buddhist teachings like the Eightfold Noble Path, it was seen in early Buddhism as a very important virtue. In fact, if the giver of a gift has a glad and bright mind before, during, and after giving, and the recipient is free from greed, hate, and delusion – or is practicing to become so – a gift is said to be endowed with “six factors.” In this case:
…it’s not easy to take the measure of the merit of a donation thus endowed with six factors as ‘just this much a bonanza of merit, a bonanza of what is skillful—a nutriment of bliss, heavenly, resulting in bliss, leading to heaven—that leads to what is desirable, pleasing, charming, beneficial, pleasant.’ It is simply reckoned as a great mass of merit, incalculable, immeasurable.[xi]
The Buddha also waxed eloquent on the benefits of giving, again without distinguishing between the value of overcoming one’s own selfishness and any benefits that would accrue to giver or receiver:
Monks, if beings knew, as I know, the results of giving & sharing, they would not eat without having given, nor would the stain of selfishness overcome their minds. Even if it were their last bite, their last mouthful, they would not eat without having shared, if there were someone to receive their gift.[xii]
Motivation and Attitude When Giving
The original Buddhist teachings emphasize that the results of giving depend on your motivation and attitude while giving. The Sappurisadana Sutta promises that when a “person of integrity” gives a gift, at some point – “wherever the result of that gift ripens” – they will enjoy much wealth and many possessions. Additional benefits (being handsome and inspiring, getting respect and good service from one’s subordinates, etc.) depend on the manner in which the gift is given:
These five are a person of integrity’s gifts. Which five? A person of integrity gives a gift with a sense of conviction. A person of integrity gives a gift attentively. A person of integrity gives a gift in season. A person of integrity gives a gift with an empathetic heart. A person of integrity gives a gift without adversely affecting himself or others.[xiii]
Presumably, a person of integrity would not be giving a gift simply because it would bring them, the donor, some future reward. So, if we set aside the matter of promises about specific results, the five recommended ways of a giving a gift describe true generosity quite well. We want to be sincere and wholehearted when we give, not grudging. We want to be attentive, which will help communicate the spirit behind the gift and help us give appropriate things. We aspire to give at a good time, matching the gift to the situation and the receiver. We give with an empathetic heart, allowing us to feel compassion for the suffering of others and sympathetic joy at their well-being – as opposed to giving out of pity, or with a sense of superiority.
Giving without adversely affecting ourselves or others is an interesting recommendation. This invites us to use wisdom in our generosity. It’s easy to imagine situations where the benefits of a gift are outweighed by the cost of giving it, or where the giving will encourage dependency, or leave the receiver with a sense of obligation. Keep in mind that gifts aren’t limited to money and material objects but include things like time, energy, and attention. Of course, too much consideration about whether giving will adversely affect self or others is likely to lead to stinginess, but the admonition to use discretion when giving gifts is certainly balanced by the the way the teachings lavishly praise giving.
The Buddha also said your motivation for giving affects the results of the action. It’s acknowledged that you might give a gift for many different reasons, not all of them noble. Among the reasons for giving that are listed in the Buddhist suttas are 1) making it up to someone because you’ve insulted them, 2) fear, 3) a sense of needing to reciprocate because someone has given something to you in the past, and 4) a desire to gain a good reputation.[xiv]
In one sutta, lay followers asked the Buddha about the results of giving that are dependent entirely on one’s motivation, saying, “Sir, could it be that someone gives a gift and it is not very fruitful or beneficial, while someone else gives exactly the same gift and it is very fruitful and beneficial?”[xv] The Buddha says this is, indeed, possible. He describes the rewards of giving in terms of rebirth in various realms “when [the] body breaks up, after death.” For each of the following seven motivations for giving, the Buddha predicts rebirth in a heavenly realm, but in the Buddhist cosmology there are many levels of heaven and none of them last forever. The motivations are listed in order of increasing purity of intention, resulting in rebirth in higher and more sublime and refined realms:
1. Giving a gift as an investment, your “mind tied to it, expecting to keep it, thinking ‘I’ll enjoy this in my next life.’” In order words, there are benefits from giving even if your primary motivation is future rewards for yourself. After all, this may be the least pure form of giving, but the Buddha still said it results in rebirth in a fortunate realm.
2. Giving because you think, “It is good to give.” Again, this is not at a bad motivation. However, you could be adhering to a set of moral guidelines out of propriety, or maintaining a sense of your own goodness, rather than sincerely cultivating the spiritual virtue of generosity.
3. Giving was practiced by your ancestors, and it wouldn’t be right to abandon the family tradition. Similarly, this kind of giving is likely to be based primarily on a sense of propriety or concern for reputation.
4. Giving because you have resources and someone else doesn’t, so “it wouldn’t be right not to give.” Remember that this is considered a reasonably pure motivation – #4 out of 7. However, this motivation could include subtle feelings of guilt or shame, or some measure of condescension toward the recipient of your giving.
5. Giving because you’re inspired by the sacrifices of past spiritual people. Inspiration seems to be considered a qualitatively different motivation than a sense of propriety.
6. Giving because doing so causes your mind to become clear and serene, and you become happy and joyful. At #6 out of 7, this is a very pure motivation for giving, and yet there is another:
7. Giving because doing so “is an adornment and requisite for the mind.”[xv] In this case, it’s not that you don’t delight in giving, it’s that your primary motivation is spiritual – you give because it is conducive to practice.
The sutta says that giving with this purest motivation causes you to be reborn “in the company of Brahma’s Retinue” (the highest of the gods) and that you will not reborn in the lower realms again (meaning you finish your training and attain Nirvana in the company of the gods). Again, it’s not necessary to dwell on the rebirth predictions in order to appreciate the teachings. To put it another way, cultivating generosity because of its effect on your mind – not even because it makes you feel good – furthers you on the path toward spiritual awakening and liberation.
What You Give and to Whom
In addition to your attitude and motivation when giving, the Buddha’s teachings address what you might give, and to whom. In the Vaccha Sutta, the Buddha says:
I tell you, Vaccha, even if a person throws the rinsings of a bowl or a cup into a village pool or pond, thinking, ‘May whatever animals live here feed on this,’ that would be a source of merit, to say nothing of what is given to human beings. But I do say that what is given to a virtuous person is of great fruit, and not so much what is given to an unvirtuous person.[xvi]
Clearly, any gift results in merit – even a tiny one, or one given with imperfect motivations. However, it’s stated repeatedly in the canonical suttas that the greatest merit comes from giving to virtuous people, and especially Buddhist monastics – and the stronger the monastic’s discipline and renunciation, the greater the merit. Ironically, then, a particular gift gains you the most merit if you give it to someone with minimal needs and no sensual desires. The Buddha explained:
When someone has gone forth from the home life into homelessness — no matter from what clan — and he has abandoned five factors and is endowed with five, what is given to him bears great fruit.
And which five factors has he abandoned? He has abandoned sensual desire… ill will… sloth & drowsiness… restlessness & anxiety… uncertainty. These are the five factors he has abandoned. And with which five factors is he endowed? He is endowed with the aggregate of virtue of one beyond training… the aggregate of concentration… the aggregate of discernment… the aggregate of release… the aggregate of knowledge & vision of release of one beyond training. These are the five factors with which he is endowed.[xvii]
Gifts to monastics, of course, would be basic requisites like simple food, monk’s robes, and basic shelter – not the “vehicles, garlands, scents, and creams” mentioned earlier as gifts you might make to lay people. The idea is that what resources you donate to support monastics supports the results of their practice, including spiritual liberation and wisdom, the continuation of the Sangha, and availability of Dharma teachings. You might think of this as similar to the suggestion that the best gift you could give a child is a good education, as opposed to a bunch of material things. You might give material things or sensual experiences that will be thoroughly enjoyed, but then they wear out, end, or become less interesting or useful. A good education – or another awakened being in the world – is a gift that keeps on giving.
Of all the gifts that you can give, the Dharma – the Buddhist teachings, “Dhamma” in Pali – is said to be the most beneficial. The Buddha said:
Monks, there are these two kinds of gifts: a gift of material things & a gift of the Dhamma. Of these two kinds of gifts, this is supreme: a gift of the Dhamma.[xviii]
In another sutta, he explained:
A giver of food is a giver of strength.
A giver of clothes, a giver of beauty.
A giver of a vehicle, a giver of ease.
A giver of a lamp, a giver of vision.
And the one who gives a residence
is the one who’s a giver of everything.
But the one who teaches the Dhamma
is a giver of
the Deathless.[xix]
If you aren’t a Dharma teacher, can you give the gift of the Dharma? Definitely. Dharma can also mean truth, and you can demonstrate the truth to people without having to talk about Buddhism. In addition, while we rely on explicitly qualified teachers to help us stay true to the Buddhist tradition instead of wandering off into a thicket of our own opinions, but there is much sharing of the Dharma within a Sangha (community of practitioners) that doesn’t come from the teacher. You might demonstrate to a newcomer how to put their shoes straight or embody compassion when dealing with a challenging situation. You might humbly share your own struggle and insights in practice with your peers. And simply by participating in and supporting a Sangha, you enable the Dharma to be taught.
Giving is Not Enough
Despite the many benefits of giving, practicing this virtue without also practicing the Eightfold Noble Path will not result in the kind of spiritual liberation the Buddha was teaching. The Buddha cautioned one of his generous and devoted lay followers:
Householder, you have provided the community of monks with robes, alms food, lodgings, & medicinal requisites for the sick, but you shouldn’t rest content with the thought, ‘We have provided the community of monks with robes, alms food, lodgings, & medicinal requisites for the sick.’ So you should train yourself, ‘Let’s periodically enter & remain in seclusion & rapture.’ That’s how you should train yourself.[xx]
Particularly in cultures which believe in rebirth, like the Buddha’s, it is common for lay devotees to make generous donations and accumulate “merit,” with an eye toward good fortune in this and future lives. Clearly, the Buddha didn’t say there was anything wrong with this, as he often described the benefits of giving in terms of rewards in this life and the next. However, notably absent from the lists of benefits from giving are spiritual attainments in Buddhist terms, such as insight into the Four Noble Truths, concentration, or the abandonment of the hindrances of sensual desire or ill will. We achieve these things through meditation, mindfulness, study, and learning to renounce that which causes suffering.
The limitations of concentrating primarily on the practice of giving is reflected in the fact that the suttas say it leads to fortunate rebirths, but not to the end of rebirth, which is a way the Buddha described the goal of practice. The point, according to the Buddha’s teachings, is to free ourselves from the cycle of birth and death, which is driven by desire and karma. For those of us who don’t believe in rebirth (or who are at least agnostic about it), we can look at rebirth as a metaphor for the way karma – behavioral cause-and-effect – manifests in this life. We may strive very hard to cultivate generosity and give up our attachments to our wealth, material possessions, and status, but our spiritual freedom will be limited until we awaken to the way desire leads to dukkha, and how we can release our dukkha by releasing that desire. Of course, practicing giving may help facilitate our awakening, so generosity and the rest of the Buddhist path are meant to be practiced at the same time.
In my next episode I discuss the ideal of giving as it appears in ancient stories about the Buddha’s previous lives, when he is said to have been a bodhisattva, and the Theravadin parami of Dana. Then get into the topic of Dana paramita in Mahayana Buddhism, including its relationship to Prajna paramita, the perfection of wisdom, which is essentially insight into Emptiness. I hope you’ll check it out!
Endnotes
[i] Fischer-Schreiber, Ingrid, Franz-Karl Ehrhard and Michael S. Diener (Michael H. Kohn, Translator). A Concise Dictionary of Buddhism and Zen. Boston: Shambala Publications, 2010. (Original copyright 1991.)
[ii] Nagarjuna, Arya. Nagarjuna on the Six Perfections (Kalavinka Buddhist Classics) (p. 35). Kalavinka Press. Kindle Edition.
[iii] “Dana: The Practice of Giving”, selected essays edited by Bhikkhu Bodhi. Access to Insight (BCBS Edition), 30 November 2013, http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/various/wheel367.html.
[iv] “Macchariya Suttas: Stinginess” (AN 5.254-271), translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. Access to Insight (BCBS Edition), 30 November 2013, http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an05/an05.254.than.html.
[v] Dhammapada verse 177: https://www.dhammatalks.org/suttas/KN/Dhp/Ch13.html#dhp177
[vi] “Dighajanu (Vyagghapajja) Sutta: Conditions of Welfare” (AN 8.54), translated from the Pali by Narada Thera. Access to Insight (BCBS Edition), 30 November 2013, http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an08/an08.054.nara.html .
[vii] Ibid
[viii] Angutarra Nikaya 5.35, translated by Bhante Sujato – https://thebuddhaswords.net/an/an5.35.html
[ix] Ibid
[x] Angutarra Nikaya 10.177, translated by Thanissaro Bhikkhu, https://www.dhammatalks.org/books/Merit/Section0006.html
[xi] Giving: Dana Sutta (AN 6:37). Translated by Thanissaro Bhikkhu: https://www.dhammatalks.org/suttas/AN/AN6_37.html
[xii] Itivuttaka 26, Translated by Thanissaro Bhikkhu: https://www.dhammatalks.org/suttas/KN/Iti/iti26.html
[xiii] “Sappurisadana Sutta: A Person of Integrity’s Gifts” (AN 5.148), translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. Access to Insight (BCBS Edition), 3 July 2010, http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an05/an05.148.than.html.
[xiv] Angutarra Nikaya 8.31, translated by Bhante Bodhi – https://suttacentral.net/an8.31/en/bodhi
[xv] Angutarra Nikaya 7.52, translated by Bhante Sujato – https://suttacentral.net/an7.52/en/sujato. See also Angutarra Nikaya 7.49, translated by Thanissaro Bhikkhu – https://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an07/an07.049.than.html
[xvi] “Vaccha Sutta: To Vaccha” (AN 3.57), translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. Access to Insight (BCBS Edition), 30 November 2013, http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an03/an03.057.than.html
[xvii] “Issattha Sutta: Archery Skills” (SN 3.24), translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. Access to Insight (BCBS Edition), 30 November 2013, http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/sn/sn03/sn03.024.than.html
[xviii] Itivuttaka 98 – https://www.dhammatalks.org/suttas/KN/Iti/iti98.html
[xix] A Giver of What – Kindada Sutta (SN 1:42) – https://www.dhammatalks.org/suttas/SN/SN1_42.html
[xx] “Piti Sutta: Rapture” (AN 5.176), translated from the Pali by Thanissaro Bhikkhu. Access to Insight (BCBS Edition), 30 November 2013, http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/an/an05/an05.176.than.html
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